More on executive function
As promised, I am following up the last article summary with a series of abstracts related to executive function. First, Moffett et al. (2022) published “Enrollment in Pre-K and Children's Social-Emotional and Executive Functioning Skills: To what extent are associations sustained across time?” in Journal of Educational Psychology. Here’s the edited abstract and impact statement:
While many studies of Pre-kindergarten (Pre-K) programs focus on academic outcomes, this study investigates nuances in Pre-K attenders’ social–emotional and executive functioning (EF) skills at the beginning and end of kindergarten. We found that children who attended the high-quality Boston Public Schools Pre-K program entered kindergarten with lower internalizing behavior and higher academic engagement compared to their peers who attended other programs prior to kindergarten or no program at all. Interestingly, these associations were attenuated by the end of the kindergarten year, and a new gap in attenders’ and non-attenders’ EF skills emerged that was not present at the beginning of kindergarten. Instead, there were emerging associations between BPS Pre-K and two dimensions of EF — working memory and inhibitory control—at the end of the kindergarten year. Taken together, the results highlight the importance of examining links between high-quality Pre-K and different indicators of children's social-emotional and EF skills across time in order to provide a more complete picture of how Pre-K supports different types of skills across time. This highlights the importance of further study of Pre-K program impacts on children's nonacademic skills. It is possible that while kindergarten may “catch up” children in their social–emotional skill development, Pre-K may be particularly important for nurturing young children's EF skills.
It’s clear that many kindergarteners can catch up to those with pre-K in internalizing behaviors and task orientation, but the pre-K kids excel in working memory and inhibitory control, both very important to success in 1st grade. The second study similarly introduces a more nuanced view. Zhang & Peng (2023) published “Longitudinal Reciprocal Relations Among Reading, Executive Function, and Social-Emotional Skills: Maybe not for all” in Journal of Educational Psychology. Once again, I am editing the abstract and impact statement:
Using the data set from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–2011, this study demonstrates longitudinal reciprocal relations between reading and executive function for high-performing students from Grades 2 to 5 but not for the general population sample or those with reading difficulties. Our findings suggest that such longitudinal reciprocal relations are variable: Longitudinal reciprocal effects may be stronger in some contexts and populations than in others. It is important to trigger and strengthen the reciprocal relations between reading and executive function to yield synergistic effects in the development of both reading and executive function, especially for those with reading difficulties. In high-performing students, the contribution of executive function to reading grew stronger while the contribution of reading to executive function remained stable; we found no longitudinal reciprocal relations between reading and social-emotional skills in any of the three sample groups; and these patterns of results remained the same based on the control of socioeconomic status and sensitivity analyses. Together, the results of this study support the heterogeneous hypothesis of mutualism theory in education: The effect of mutualism may be stronger in some contexts and populations than in others. Longitudinal reciprocal relations between executive function and reading may be driven mostly by high-quality and intensive learning and practice in reading, not by socioeconomic status.
Here, I like the finding that children with weaker academic skills do not experience the same reciprocal effects that high-performing students do. It may also mean that executive functioning catalyzes learning to read, but only in children with a history of high performance. In the third study, Andres et a. (2022) published “Executive Functions and Academic Performance: The moderating role of distress tolerance” in Mind Brain and Education. Here’s the abstract:
The aim of this study was to analyze the moderating effect of distress tolerance (DT) on the relationship between executive functions and academic performance (AP). Participants were 270 children aged 9–12 years. Executive functions (EFs)—working memory (WM), inhibition, and cognitive flexibility—and DT were evaluated using computerized tasks. Direct measures of reading comprehension and mathematical calculation, as well as school grades, were used to assess AP. Results showed that verbal WM and cognitive flexibility were positively associated with reading indicators, but to a greater extent among children with medium and low DT. A positive association was found between visuospatial WM, and a mathematical indicator, to a greater extent among children with medium and low DT. The EFs did not show explanatory capacity for AP in children with high DT. These results suggest that DT could function as a “compensatory” resource.
If you’re noting the progression here, we’ve seen that fewer internalizing behaviors and more inhibitory control are characteristic of more successful students. Both of these can influence distress tolerance, with high distress tolerance interfering with other features of executive function. While high-performing students experience the reciprocal benefit of executive function and reading, others do not. Turning next to adolescents, Brodsky, Bergson, Chen, Hayward, Plass, & Homer (2022) published “Language Ambiguity and Executive Functions in Adolescents' Theory of Mind” in Child Development. Here’s the abstract:
Executive functions' (EF) role in adolescents' advanced theory of mind (aToM) was examined. In Study 1, adolescents (N = 189 in 2017, Mage = 13.1 years, 55.6% female from racially/ethnically diverse schools) completed the Flexibility and Automaticity of Social Cognition task (FASC), and shifting and inhibition measures [cartoon vignettes of social situations are presented and participants explain what is happening and why. Scenarios vary on whether the scenario is socially ambiguous and whether or not language is used. Flexibility is determined by the number of unique, plausible explanations, and automaticity is indicated by speed of response]. Study 2 (N = 289 in 2018 and 2019, Mage = 15.7 years, 59.9% female, 56.4% Hispanic/Latino) replicated Study 1 in older adolescents using automated scoring of FASC flexibility. Flexibility of social cognition varied based on ambiguity and language use; automaticity of social cognition varied by ambiguity. The role of EF was less conclusive; shifting and inhibition predicted some flexibility and automaticity measures. Ambiguity, language, and EF, particularly shifting, influence aToM into adolescence.
Once again, the findings are not neat and tidy, but they use relatively gender-balanced and diverse groups of participants. Flexibility and shifting are strongly related to the more conceptual skills adolescents must develop to handle social situations. Finally, Muscatell et al. (2022) published: “Brain–Body Pathways Linking Racism and Health” in American Psychologist.
Here’s an edited version of the impact statement and abstract:
Understanding how racism influences the brain and body is an important next step for research in this area. Racial disparities in health are a major public health problem in the United States, especially when comparing chronic disease morbidity and mortality for Black versus White Americans. These health disparities are primarily due to insidious anti-Black racism that permeates American history, current culture and institutions, and interpersonal interactions. But how does racism get under the skull and the skin to influence brain and bodily processes that impact the health of Black Americans? In the present article, we present a model describing the possible neural and inflammatory mechanisms linking racism and health. We hypothesize that racism influences neural activity and connectivity in the salience and default mode networks of the brain and disrupts interactions between these networks and the executive control network. [One theory is that the salience network (SN)—which includes the anterior cingulate cortex, presupplementary motor area, and anterior insulae—regulates dynamic changes in other networks. Efficient inhibitory control may be associated with rapid deactivation within parts of the default mode network (DMN), including the precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex.] This pattern of neural functioning, in turn, leads to greater sympathetic nervous system signaling, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation, and increased expression of genes involved in inflammation, ultimately leading to higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the body and brain. Over time, these neural and physiological responses can lead to chronic physical and mental health conditions, disrupt well-being, and cause premature mortality. Given that research in this area is underdeveloped to date, we emphasize opportunities for future research that are needed to build a comprehensive mechanistic understanding of the brain-body pathways linking anti-Black racism and health.
I like this study because it emphasizes subtle brain functions that interact with the executive control network and may explain the greater health vulnerabilities in Black Americans and other underserved minority groups.